The item and list methods of directed forgetting: Test differences and the role of demand characteristics

In directed forgetting, the item method presents instructions to remember or to forget individual items; the list method presents a single mid-list instruction to forget the first half of the list. Initial free recall was better for remember (R) words than for forget (F) words under both methods. Offered 50¢ for each additional F word, subjects could recall almost no more items, eliminating a demand characteristics explanation. On ayes/no recognition test, only the item method showed directed forgetting. Retrospective instruction identification was good except for F words under the list method, where performance was at chance. There was no evidence of speed-accuracy tradeoff on the recognition or instruction identification tests. These results bring together the major findings concerning directed forgetting and support a method-based theoretical distinction.

Article PDF

Download to read the full article text

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

References

• Basden, B. H., Basden, D. R., Coe, W. C., Decker, S. , & Crutcher, K. (1994). Retrieval inhibition in directed forgetting and posthypnotic amnesia.International Journal of Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis,42, 184–203. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Basden, B. H., Basden, D. R. , & Gargano, G. J. (1993). Directed forgetting in implicit and explicit memory tests: A comparison of methods.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,19, 603–616. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Bjork, E. L., Bjork, R. A. , & Anderson, M. C. (1998). Varieties of goal-directed forgetting. In J. M. Golding & C. M. MacLeod (Eds.),Intentional forgetting: Interdisciplinary approaches (pp. 103–137). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
• Bjork, R. A. (1972). Theoretical implication of directed forgetting. In A. W. Melton & E. Martin (Eds.),Coding processes in human memory (pp. 217–235). Washington, DC: Winston. Google Scholar
• Bjork, R. A. (1989). Retrieval inhibition as an adaptive mechanism in human memory. In H. L. Roediger III & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.),Varieties of memory and consciousness: Essays in honour of Endel Tulving (pp. 309–330). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
• Bjork, R. A. , & Woodward, A. E. , Jr. (1973). Directed forgetting of individual words in free recall.Journal of Experimental Psychology,99, 22–27. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Block, R. A. (1971). Effects of instructions to forget in short-term memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology,89, 1–9. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Coe, W. C. (1978). The credibility of posthypnotic amnesia: A contextualist’s view.International Journal of Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis,26, 218–245. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Davis, J. C. , & Okada, R. (1971). Recognition and recall of positively forgotten items.Journal of Experimental Psychology,89, 181–186. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Elmes, D. G., Adams, C. A. , III, & Roediger, H. L. , III (1970). Cued forgetting in short-term memory: Response selection.Journal of Experimental Psychology,86, 103–107. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Geiselman, R. E., Bjork, R. A. , & Fishman, D. L. (1983). Disrupted retrieval in directed forgetting: A link with posthypnotic amnesia.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,112, 58–72. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Geiselman, R. E., Rabow, V. E., Wachtel, S. L. , & MacKinnon, D. P. (1985). Strategy control in intentional forgetting.Human Learning,4, 169–178. Google Scholar
• Golding, J. M. , & Long, D. L. (1998). There’s more to intentional forgetting than directed forgetting: An integrative review. In J. M. Golding & C. M. MacLeod (Eds.),Intentional forgetting: Interdisciplinary approaches (pp. 59–102). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
• Golding, J. M. , & MacLeod, C. M. ( Eds. ) (1998).Intentional forgetting: Interdisciplinary approaches. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
• Graves, R. , & Bradley, R. (1987). Millisecond interval timer and auditory reaction time programs for the IBM PC.Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers,19, 30–35. Google Scholar
• Graves, R. , & Bradley, R. (1988). More on millisecond timing and tachistoscope applications for the IBM PC.Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers,20, 408–412. Google Scholar
• Gross, A. E., Barresi, J. , & Smith, E. E. (1970). Voluntary forgetting of a shared memory load.Psychonomic Science,20, 73–75. Google Scholar
• Johnson, H. M. (1994). Processes of successful intentional forgetting.Psychological Bulletin,116, 274–292. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• MacLeod, C. M. (1975). Long-term recognition and recall following directed forgetting.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory,1, 271–279. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• MacLeod, C. M. (1998). Directed forgetting. In J. M. Golding & C. M. MacLeod (Eds.),Intentional forgetting: Interdisciplinary approaches (pp. 1–57). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
• Muther, W. S. (1965). Erasure or partitioning in short-term memory.Psychonomic Science,3, 429–430. Google Scholar
• Orne, M. T. (1962). On the social psychology of the psychological experiment.American Psychologist,17, 776–783. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Thorndike, E. L. , & Lorge, I. (1944).The teacher’s word book of 30,000 words. New York: Columbia University, Teachers College Press. Google Scholar
• Weiner, B. (1968). Motivated forgetting and the study of repression.Journal of Personality,36, 213–234. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Whetstone, T., Cross, M. D. , & Whetstone, L. M. (1996). Inhibition, contextual segregation, and subject strategies in list method directed forgetting.Consciousness & Cognition,5, 395–417. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Woodward, A. E. , Jr., & Bjork, R. A. (1971). Forgetting and remembering in free recall: Intentional and unintentional.Journal of Experimental Psychology,89, 109–116. ArticleGoogle Scholar

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

1. Division of Life Sciences, University of Toronto, M1C 1A4, Scarborough, ON, Canada Colin M. Macleod

1. Colin M. Macleod

Corresponding author

Additional information

This research was supported by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Grant A7459. For her assistance in programming and in collecting the data, I am very grateful to Shelley Hodder. For helpful comments on earlier versions, I thank Barbara Basden, David Basden, David Elmes, and Jonathan Golding.

Rights and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Macleod, C.M. The item and list methods of directed forgetting: Test differences and the role of demand characteristics. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 6, 123–129 (1999). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03210819

• Received : 24 November 1997
• Accepted : 26 March 1998
• Issue Date : March 1999
• DOI : https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03210819

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Get shareable link

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Copy to clipboard

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Keywords

• Journal ofExperimental Psychology
• Recognition Test
• Recall Test
• Demand Characteristic
• Instruction Identification